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Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory

  • 1 Shannon, Claude Elwood

    [br]
    b. 30 April 1916 Gaylord, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American mathematician, creator of information theory.
    [br]
    As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.
    Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.
    Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.
    Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.
    On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    National Medal of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, Kyoto Prize.
    Bibliography
    His seminal paper (on what has subsequently become known as information theory) was entitled "The mathematical theory of communications", first published in Bell System Technical Journal in 1948; it is also available in a monograph (written with Warren Weaver) published by the University of Illinois Press in 1949, and in Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory, ed. David Slepian, IEEE Press, 1974, 1988. For readers who want all of Shannon's works, see N.J.A.Sloane and A.D.Wyner, 1992, The
    Collected Papers of Claude E.Shannon.
    HO

    Biographical history of technology > Shannon, Claude Elwood

  • 2 hold

    A n
    1 (grasp, grip) prise f ; to get hold of attraper [rope, handle] ; to keep (a) hold of ou on tenir [ball, rail, hand] ; ⇒ catch, grab, grasp, seize, take ;
    2 ( possession) to get hold of se procurer [book, ticket, document] ; [press] avoir vent de [story] ; découvrir [details, information] ;
    3 ( contact) to get hold of ( by phone) joindre [person] ; ( by other means) trouver [person] ;
    4 ( control) emprise f (on, over sur) ; to have a hold on ou over sb avoir de l'emprise sur qn ; to get a hold of oneself se reprendre ;
    5 (storage, area) Aviat soute f ; Naut cale f ;
    6 Sport ( in wrestling) prise f ; to have sb in a hold faire une prise à qn ;
    7 (of hairspray, gel) fixation f ; normal/extra hold fixation normale/extra-forte.
    B vtr ( prét, pp held)
    1 ( clasp) tenir [object, hand, person] (above, over au-dessus de ; against contre) ; to hold sth in one's hand tenir qch à la main [brush, pencil, stick] ; ( enclosed) tenir qch dans la main [button, coin, sweet] ; to hold sth/sb by tenir qch/qn par [handle, stem, sleeve, leg] ; to hold one's stomach/head (in pain) se tenir l'estomac/la tête (à cause de la douleur) ; to hold sb (in one's arms) serrer qn dans ses bras ; to hold each other se serrer l'un contre l'autre ; can you hold my bag for me? tu peux me tenir mon sac? ;
    2 ( maintain) to hold one's head upright/still tenir sa tête droite/immobile ; to hold one's hands apart/still tenir ses mains écartées/immobiles ; to hold a pose/smile garder une pose/un sourire ; to hold sth in place ou position maintenir qch en place ; to hold one's speed maintenir sa vitesse ;
    3 ( arrange) organiser, tenir [meeting, talks] ; organiser [competition, ballot, demonstration, course, election] ; organiser, donner [party, reception] ; organiser, monter [exhibition, show] ; avoir [conversation] ; célébrer [church service] ; mener [enquiry] ; faire passer [interview] ; to be held avoir lieu ;
    4 ( have capacity for) [box, case, tank] (pouvoir) contenir [objects, amount] ; [theatre, room] avoir une capacité de [350 people] ; the bus holds ten (people) le bus a dix places ; to (be able to) hold one's drink ou liquor tenir l'alcool ;
    5 ( contain) [drawer, cupboard, box, case] contenir [objects, possessions] ;
    6 ( support) [shelf, fridge, branch, roof] supporter [weight, load, crate] ; the branch won't hold you la branche ne supportera pas ton poids ;
    7 ( restrain) [dam, wall] retenir, contenir [water, flood waters] ; [person] tenir [dog] ; maîtriser [thief] ; there is/there'll be no holding him fig on ne peut/pourra plus l'arrêter ;
    8 ( keep against will) [police, kidnappers] détenir [person] ; to hold sb prisoner/hostage garder qn prisonnier/en otage ;
    9 ( possess) détenir, avoir [shares, power, record, playing card] ; être titulaire de [degree, sporting title, cup] ; occuper [job, position] ; avoir, être en possession de [ticket, passport, licence] ; porter [title] ; Jur, gen [bank, computer, police, solicitor] conserver [document, information, money] ; avoir [mortgage] ;
    10 ( keep back) garder [place, seat, ticket] ; faire attendre [train, flight] ; mettre [qch] en attente [letter, order] ; hold it ○ ! minute ○ ! ; hold everything! arrête tout! ; two burgers, but hold the mustard! deux hamburgers, sans moutarde ;
    11 ( believe) avoir [opinion, belief] ; to hold sb/sth to be tenir qn/qch pour, considérer qn/qch comme ; to hold that [person] soutenir que ; [law, theory] dire que ; to hold sb liable ou responsible tenir qn pour responsable ;
    12 ( defend successfully) Mil tenir [territory, city, bridge] ; Pol, Sport conserver [title, seat, lead, position] ; ( in tennis) to hold one's serve ou service gagner or remporter son service ; to hold one's own [person] se défendre tout seul (against contre) ; [army] tenir bon (against devant) ;
    13 ( captivate) captiver [person, audience, class] ; capter, retenir [attention, interest] ;
    14 Telecom to hold the line patienter, rester en ligne ; can you hold the line please ne quittez pas s'il vous plaît ;
    15 Mus tenir [note] (for pendant) ;
    16 Aut to hold the road tenir la route.
    C vi ( prét, pp held)
    1 ( remain intact) [rope, shelf, bridge, dam, glue] tenir ; fig ( also hold good) [theory, offer, objection, law] tenir ;
    2 ( continue) [weather] rester beau/belle, se maintenir ; [luck] continuer, durer ;
    3 Telecom patienter ;
    4 ( remain steady) hold still! tiens-toi tranquille!
    D v refl ( prét, pp held) to hold oneself upright/well se tenir droit/bien.
    1 Telecom en attente ; to put sb on hold Telecom faire patienter qn ; to put a call on hold Telecom mettre un appel en attente ;
    2 to put one's plan/a project on hold gen laisser ses projets/un projet en suspens.
    ■ hold against: to hold sth against sb reprocher qch à qn ; to hold it against sb that en vouloir à qn parce que ; I don't hold it against him/them je ne lui/leur en veux pas ; your age could be held against you ton âge pourrait jouer en ta défaveur.
    ■ hold back:
    ▶ hold back se retenir ; to hold back from doing se retenir de faire, préférer ne pas faire ;
    ▶ hold [sb/sth] back, hold back [sb/sth]
    1 ( restrain) contenir [water, tide, crowd, animals] ; retenir [hair, tears] ; retenir [person] ; refouler [feelings] ; contenir [anger] ; to hold back one's laughter se retenir or s'empêcher de rire ;
    2 ( prevent progress of) ( involuntarily) [person] retarder [person, group] ; ( deliberately) [person] retenir [person] ; [background, poor education] gêner [person] ; entraver [production, progress, development] ;
    3 ( withhold) [person, government, organization] cacher [information, result] ; ( to protect privacy) tenir [qch] secret, ne pas divulguer [name, information, identity] ; [person, company] différer [payment].
    ■ hold down:
    ▶ hold [sb/sth] down, hold down [sb/sth]
    1 ( prevent from moving) maintenir [qch] en place [tent, carpet, piece of paper] ; tenir, maîtriser [person] ;
    2 ( press down) appuyer sur [pedal, key] ;
    3 ( keep at certain level) limiter [number, rate, expenditure, costs, inflation] ; limiter l'augmentation de [wages, taxes, prices] ;
    4 ( keep) ( not lose) garder [job] ; ( have) avoir [job].
    ■ hold forth péj disserter, pérorer pej (about, on sur).
    ■ hold in:
    ▶ hold [sth] in, hold in [sth]
    1 ( restrain) réprimer, contenir [feeling, anger, disappointment] ;
    2 ( pull in) rentrer [stomach, buttocks].
    ■ hold off:
    ▶ hold off [enemy] accorder un répit ; [creditors] accorder un délai ; I hope the rain holds off j'espère qu'il ne pleuvra pas ; the rain held off until after the match il s'est mis à pleuvoir après le match ; to hold off buying/making a decision reporter l'achat/la décision à plus tard ; he held off leaving until the weekend il a reporté son départ au week-end ;
    ▶ hold [sb] off, hold off [sb] tenir [qn] à distance [enemy, creditor, journalists] ; faire patienter [client] ;
    ▶ hold [sth] off repousser [attack].
    ■ hold on:
    ▶ hold on
    1 ( wait) gen attendre ; Telecom patienter ; ‘hold on, I'll just get him’ ( on telephone) ‘ne quittez pas, je vais le chercher’ ;
    2 ( grip) tenir (with de, avec) ; ‘hold on (tight)!’ ‘tiens-toi (bien)!’ ;
    3 ( endure) [person, company] tenir ;
    ▶ hold [sth] on [screw, glue] maintenir [qch] en place ; to be held on with sth [door, handle, wheel] être maintenu par qch.
    ▶ hold on to [sb/sth]
    1 ( grip) s'agripper à [branch, railing, rope] ; s'agripper à, se tenir à [person] ; ( to prevent from falling) agripper, retenir [person] ; serrer [object, purse] ; (bien) tenir [dog] ;
    2 ( retain) conserver [power, title, lead] ; garder [shares, car] ; to hold on to one's dreams fig s'accrocher à ses rêves ; to hold on to one's ou the belief that persister à croire que ;
    3 ( look after) garder [object] (for pour).
    ■ hold out:
    1 ( endure) tenir le coup, tenir bon ; to hold out against tenir bon devant [enemy, changes, threat] ;
    2 ( remain available) [supplies, food, stocks] durer ;
    ▶ hold [sth] out, holdout [sth] tendre [glass, money, ticket] (to à) ; to hold out one's hand/leg tendre la main/la jambe ;
    ▶ hold out [sth] garder, conserver [hope] ; I don't hold out much hope je ne me fais guère d'illusions, je n'ai plus beaucoup d'espoir ; they don't hold out much hope of finding him ils ont perdu presque tout espoir de le retrouver ; to hold out for insister pour obtenir [pay rise, increase] ; to hold out on sb ○ cacher des choses à qn ; they know something, but they're holding out on us ils sont au courant mais ils nous cachent quelque chose.
    ■ hold over:
    ▶ hold [sth] over, hold over [sth]
    1 ( postpone) ajourner [question, programme] ;
    2 ( continue to show) maintenir [qch] à l'affiche [film] ; prolonger [show, exhibition].
    ■ hold to:
    ▶ hold to [sth] s'en tenir à [belief, opinion, decision] ;
    ▶ hold sb to [sth] faire tenir [qch] à qn [promise] ; faire honorer [qch] à qn [contract, offer] ; I'll hold you to that! je note!, je m'en souviendrai!
    1 ( not break) [car, shoes, chair] tenir ;
    2 ( remain united) [family, party] rester uni ; [alliance] rester intact ;
    ▶ hold [sth] together
    1 ( keep intact) faire tenir [car, machine, chair] ; maintenir ensemble [papers, pieces] ; to be held together with sth tenir avec qch ;
    2 ( unite) assurer la cohésion de [company, party, government] ; my mother held the family together la famille est restée unie grâce à ma mère.
    ■ hold up:
    ▶ hold up
    1 ( remain intact) tenir, résister ; to hold up well [currency] résister ;
    2 ( remain valid) [theory, argument] tenir ;
    ▶ hold [sb/sth] up, hold up [sb/sth]
    1 ( support) soutenir [shelf, picture] ; tenir [trousers, stockings] ; to be held up by ou with sth tenir avec qch ;
    2 ( raise) lever [object] ; to hold one's hand up lever la main ;
    3 ( display) to hold sb/sth up as an example ou model of présenter qn/ qch comme un exemple de ; to hold sb up to ridicule tourner qn en ridicule, ridiculiser qn ;
    4 ( delay) retarder [person, flight] ; ralentir [production, traffic] ; arrêter, interrompre [procession] ;
    5 ( rob) attaquer [train, bank, person].
    ■ hold with: not to hold with ne pas être d'accord avec [idea, system] ; être contre [television, imitations etc] ; he doesn't hold with teaching children French il est contre le fait qu'on enseigne le français aux enfants.

    Big English-French dictionary > hold

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